The Sociology of Hate Speech
PDF (OPEN ACCESS)

Keywords

hate speech
nationalism
migration
border
purity

How to Cite

Bajt, V. (2025). The Sociology of Hate Speech. ANNALES, SERIES HISTORIA ET SOCIOLOGIA, 35(4), 397–410. https://doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2025.26

Abstract

Hate speech reflects and reinforces underlying prejudices and structural inequalities, functioning as a mechanism to maintain existing power dynamics and social hierarchies. It is a multifaceted sociological phenomenon that intersects with the multileveled concepts of nationalism, racism, gender, and migration. This article argues that a comprehensive understanding of these intersections is necessary to sociologically analyse hate speech, revealing this interplay between systemic power structures and individual prejudices. This is necessary if we are to understand and mitigate the rising influence of hate speech in society.

https://doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2025.26
PDF (OPEN ACCESS)

References

Bade, Klaus J. (2005): Evropa v gibanju: migracije od poznega 18. stoletja do danes. Ljubljana, Založba/*cf.

Bajt, Veronika (2016): Who ‘Belongs’? Migration, Nationalism and National Identity in Slovenia. Razprave in gradivo, 76, 49–66.

Bajt, Veronika (2019): The Schengen Border and the Criminalization of Migration in Slovenia. Südosteuropa, 67, 3, 304–327.

Bajt, Veronika (2021): Virus strahu: nacionalizem in pandemična družba. Monitor ISH, 23, 2, 50–77.

Benhabib, Seyla (2004): The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Bieber, Florian (2022): Global Nationalism in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Nationalities Papers, 50, 1, 13–25.

Bleich, Erik & A. Maurits van der Veen (2022): Covering Muslims: American Newspapers in Comparative Perspective. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Brown, Alexander (2017): What is Hate Speech? Part 1: The Myth of Hate. Law and Philosophy, 36, 4, 419–468.

Castles, Stephen, de Haas, Hein & Mark J. Miller (2013): The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. 5th ed. London, Palgrave Macmillan.

CDADI – Steering Committee on Anti-Discrimination, Diversity and Inclusion (2023): Study on Preventing and Combating Hate Speech in Times of Crisis. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.

Chan, Carol & Maria Montt Strabucchi (2020): Many-Faced Orientalism: Racism and Xenophobia in a Time of the Novel Coronavirus in Chile. Asian Ethnicity, 22, 2, 374–394.

European Commission (2022): Integration of immigrants in the European Union. Special Eurobarometer 519. Report. DG Home, Publications Office of the European Union.

Fontana, Josep (2003): Evropa pred zrcalom. Ljubljana, Založba /*cf.

Gasman, Daniel (2004): The Scientific Origins of National Socialism. London, Transaction Publishers.

Geary, Patrick J. (2005): Mit narodov: srednjeveški izvori Evrope. Ljubljana, Studia Humanitatis.

Gelber, Katharine (2019): Differentiating Hate Speech: A Systemic Discrimination Approach. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 24, 4, 393–414.

Hietanen, Mika & Johan Eddebo (2022): Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 47, 4, 440–458.

IOM (2022): World Migration Report 2022. Geneva, International Organization for Migration.

IOM (2024): Global Migration Data Portal. Geneva, International Organization for Migration.

Jalušič, Vlasta (2017): Ko gre jezik na dopust. Časopis za kritiko znanosti, 268, 21–42.

Jiang, Jize & Edna Erez (2018): Immigrants as Symbolic Assailants. Crimmigration and Its Discontents. International Criminal Justice Review, 28, 1, 5–24.

Joppke, Christian (2010): Citizenship and Immigration. Cambridge, Polity.

Kersting, Felix & Nikolaus Wolf (2024): On the Origins of National Identity. German Nation-building after Napoleon. Journal of Comparative Economics, 52, 2, 463–477.

Kogovšek Šalamon, Neža (2017): Mass Migration, Crimmigration and Defiance. Southeastern Europe, 41, 3, 251–275.

Leets, Laura (2002): Experiencing Hate Speech. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 2, 341–361.

Malešević, Siniša (2024): The Many Faces of Nationalism. Nationalities Papers, 52, 3, 487–496.

Mayer, Tamar (ed.) (2000): Gender Ironies of Nationalism: Sexing the Nation. London, Routledge.

Moreno Barreneche, Sebastian (2020): Somebody to Blame: On the Construction of the Other in the Context of the COVID-19 Outbreak. Society Register, 4, 2, 19–32.

Mudde, Cas (2019): The Far Right Today. London, Polity Press.

Parekh, Bikhu (2012): Is There a Case for Banning Hate Speech? In: Herz, Michael & Peter Molnar (eds.): The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 37–56.

Pejchal, Viera (2020): Hate Speech and Human Rights in Eastern Europe: Legislating for Divergent Values. Milton, Taylor and Francis.

Poletto, Fabio, Basile, Valerio, Sanguinetti, Manuela, Bosco, Cristina & Viviana Patti (2020): Resources and Benchmark Corpora for Hate Speech Detection: A Systematic Review. Language Resources and Evaluation, 55, 2, 477–523.

Rae, Heather (2002): State Identities and the Homogenisation of Peoples. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Sargent, Carolyn & Stephanie Larchanche (2007): The Muslim Body and the Politics of Immigration in France: Popular and Biomedical Representations of Malian Migrant Women. Body & Society, 13, 3, 79–102.

Scheibelhofer, Paul (2017): ‘It Won’t Work without Ugly Pictures’: Images of Othered Masculinities and the Legitimisation of Restrictive Refugee-Politics in Austria. NORMA, 12, 2, 96–111.

Smith, Anthony (1998): Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism. London, Routledge.

Stumpf, Juliet (2006): The Crimmigration Crisis. Immigrants, Crime, and Sovereign Power, American University Law Review, 56, 2, 367–419.

Thorleifsson, Cathrine (2019): In Pursuit of Purity: Populist Nationalism and the Racialization of Difference. Identities, 28, 2, 186–202.

Todorova, Maria (1997): Imagining the Balkans. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Triandafyllidou, Anna (1998): National Identity and the ‘Other’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 21, 4, 593–612.

Tsesis, Alexander (2002): Destructive Messages: How Hate Speech Paves the Way for Harmful Social Movements. London, New York University Press.

United Nations (n.d.): A Pandemic of Hate. https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/a-pandemic-of-hate (last access: 2025-09-18).

van der Woude, Maartje & Joanne van der Leun (2017): Crimmigration Checks in the Internal Border Areas of the EU: Finding the Discretion that Matters. European Journal of Criminology, 14, 1, 27–45.

Vergani, Matteo, Perry, Barbara, Freilich, Joshua, Chermak, Steven, Scrivens, Ryan, Link, Rouven, Kleinsman, Daniel, Betts, John & Muhammad Iqbal (2024): Mapping the Scientific Knowledge and Approaches to Defining and Measuring Hate Crime, Hate Speech, and Hate Incidents: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 20, e1397.

Waldron, Jeremy (2012): The Harm in Hate Speech. London, Harvard University Press.

Wodak, Ruth (2015): The Politics of Fear: What Right-Wing Populist Discourses Mean. London, Sage.

Wojnicka, Katarzyna & Paula Pustułka (2017): Migrant Men in the Nexus of Space and (Dis)empowerment. NORMA, 12, 2, 89–95.

Wojnicka, Katarzyna & Paula Pustułka (2019): Research on Men, Masculinities and Migration: Past, Present and Future. NORMA, 14, 2, 91–95.

Yuval-Davis, Nira (1997): Gender & Nation. London, SAGE.

Yuval-Davis, Nira & Floya Anthias (eds.) (1989): Woman-Nation-State. Houndsmills, The Macmillan Press.

Zedner, Lucia (2019): The Hostile Border: Crimmigration, Counter-Terrorism, Or Crossing the Line on Rights?. New Criminal Law Review, 22, 3, 318–345.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Copyright (c) 2025 Veronika Bajt